Creatine

What does the research say?

Research consistently demonstrates that creatine supplementation, especially when combined with resistance training, can significantly increase muscle mass, strength, and power [1] [3] [7] [10] [15] . It enhances the body's ability to perform high-intensity work, leading to greater training adaptations over time [3] [11] . Studies have shown that individuals taking creatine experience greater gains in muscle size and strength compared to those taking a placebo [1] [6] [10] . The increase in muscle strength following creatine supplementation plus resistance training averages 8% more than with placebo, and weightlifting performance increases by an average of 14% more [10] . These improvements are linked to creatine's ability to increase intramuscular PCr stores, enhance ATP regeneration, and potentially influence muscle protein synthesis and other cellular processes [1] [3] [6] .

Gastrointestinal distress

Some individuals may experience mild stomach upset or discomfort, although this is typically infrequent and often associated with high doses [8] .

Muscle cramps

These have been reported anecdotally, but scientific evidence does not support a direct link between creatine supplementation and increased cramping [1] [8] .

Weight gain

This is primarily due to increased water retention in the muscles, especially during the initial loading phase [1] [4] . However, long-term studies show no significant changes in total body water [1] .

[1] Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?

This review addresses common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation, clarifying that creatine is a naturally occurring compound that enhances energy production during high-intensity exercise. It highlights the benefits of creatine for muscle mass, strength, performance, and recovery, and debunks myths about its side effects.

[2] Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Brain Function and Health.

This paper reviews the effects of creatine on brain function and health, mentioning its role in ATP resynthesis and potential benefits for cognitive function and neurological conditions. It also briefly touches on creatine's well-established role in increasing muscle creatine levels and improving muscle mass and function.

[3] Creatine for Exercise and Sports Performance, with Recovery Considerations for Healthy Populations.

This review examines the role of creatine in enhancing exercise and sports performance, as well as its impact on recovery. It highlights creatine's ability to increase intramuscular phosphocreatine stores, improve high-intensity performance, and facilitate recovery.

[4] Creatine supplementation and endurance performance: surges and sprints to win the race.

This review explores the effects of creatine supplementation on endurance performance, particularly in activities requiring high-intensity surges or sprints. It discusses creatine's role in ATP resynthesis, glycogen resynthesis, and its potential anti-inflammatory effects.

[5] Timing of Creatine Supplementation around Exercise: A Real Concern?

This review examines the impact of creatine timing on exercise performance and adaptations. It highlights creatine's role in increasing muscle creatine stores and enhancing ATP resynthesis, leading to improved exercise performance and muscle hypertrophy.

[6] Effects of Creatine Supplementation during Resistance Training Sessions in Physically Active Young Adults.

This clinical study investigated the effects of creatine supplementation during resistance training in young adults. It found that creatine supplementation significantly increased strength and endurance compared to placebo.

[7] Effects of 4-Week Creatine Supplementation Combined with Complex Training on Muscle Damage and Sport Performance.

This study examined the effects of creatine supplementation combined with complex training on muscle damage and sport performance. It found that creatine supplementation improved maximal muscular strength, reduced muscle damage, and enhanced recovery.

[8] Adverse effects of creatine supplementation: fact or fiction?

This review examines the potential adverse effects of creatine supplementation, contrasting scientific evidence with media reports. It concludes that there is no substantial evidence for deleterious effects in healthy individuals, although liver and kidney function should be monitored during supplementation.

[9] Creatine supplementation improves performance, but is it safe? Double-blind placebo-controlled study.

This double-blind placebo-controlled study evaluated the effect of creatine monohydrate supplementation on a panel of blood and urine health indicators in resistance training practitioners.

[10] Effects of creatine supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength and weightlifting performance.

This review evaluates the effects of creatine supplementation on muscle strength and weightlifting performance when ingested concomitant with resistance training.

[11] The Application of Creatine Supplementation in Medical Rehabilitation.

This review discusses the application of creatine supplementation in medical rehabilitation, highlighting its potential to improve muscle mass, strength, and physical function in various conditions.

[12] The role of resistance training and creatine supplementation on oxidative stress, antioxidant defense, muscle strength, and quality of life in older adults.

This study investigated the effects of creatine supplementation and resistance training on muscle strength, body composition, and oxidative stress in older adults. It found that creatine supplementation significantly increased muscle strength.

[13] Caffeine and creatine use in sport.

This paper reviews the pharmacology and potential mechanism(s) of action of caffeine and creatine as they pertain to possible use as an ergogenic aid in sport.

[14] Creatine Supplementation and Upper Limb Strength Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

This meta-analysis focused specifically on supplementation responses in muscles of the upper limbs without regard to upper limbs.

[15] Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Catabolic Effects of Creatine Supplementation: A Brief Review.

This review explores the potential anti-inflammatory and anti-catabolic effects of creatine supplementation, suggesting that it may create a favorable environment for muscle and bone growth or recovery.

[16] Effects of whey isolate, creatine, and resistance training on muscle hypertrophy.

This study examined the effects of two popular supplements--whey protein (WP) and creatine monohydrate (CrM) (both separately and in combination)--on body composition, muscle strength, fiber-specific hypertrophy (i.e., type I, IIa, IIx), and contractile protein accrual during RE training.

[17] Use of creatine in the elderly and evidence for effects on cognitive function in young and old.

This paper reviews the benefits of creatine supplementation in older adults, including increased lean body mass, strength, and fatigue resistance. It also discusses the potential effects of creatine on cognitive function.

[18] Effect of Ten Weeks of Creatine Monohydrate Plus HMB Supplementation on Athletic Performance Tests in Elite Male Endurance Athletes.

This study investigated the effects of creatine monohydrate plus HMB supplementation on athletic performance in elite male endurance athletes. It found that creatine improved endurance capacity, enhanced recovery, and increased muscle glycogen storage.

[19] Creatine supplementation and exercise performance: recent findings.

This review summarizes and evaluates the findings associated with Cr ingestion and sport and exercise performance with the most recent research available.

[20] Effects of Creatine Supplementation on Properties of Muscle, Bone, and Brain Function in Older Adults: A Narrative Review.

This narrative review examines and summarizes the small body of research investigating the effects of creatine supplementation alone on measures of muscle mass and performance, bone mineral and strength, and indices of brain health in older adults.

[21] Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation.

This study tested whether creatine given as a supplement to normal subjects was absorbed, and if continued resulted in an increase in the total creatine pool in muscle.

[22] Creatine monohydrate supplementation during eight weeks of progressive resistance training increases strength in as little as two weeks without reducing markers of muscle damage.

The aim was to determine the precise time course by which Cr could increase strength and whether Cr prevents muscle damage during eight weeks of resistance training.

[23] The Additive Effects of Creatine Supplementation and Exercise Training in an Aging Population: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials.

This systematic review assessed whether creatine supplementation combined with exercise results in additive improvements in indices of skeletal muscle, bone, and mental health over exercise alone in healthy older adults.

[24] Effect of low dose, short-term creatine supplementation on muscle power output in elite youth soccer players.

This study investigated the effects of low-dose, short-term creatine supplementation on muscle power output in elite youth soccer players. It found that creatine improved peak power output, mean power output, and total work during high-intensity exercise.

[25] The Effect of Prior Creatine Intake for 28 Days on Accelerated Recovery from Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial.

This study examined the effects of prior creatine intake on recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage. It found that creatine accelerated recovery by improving range of motion, maximum voluntary contraction, and reducing muscle fatigue.

[26] Pharmacokinetics of creatine.

This paper reviews the pharmacokinetics of creatine, discussing its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. It highlights the role of transport processes in governing creatine's movement throughout the body.

[27] Is creatine a CNS neurotransmitter?

This paper explores the potential role of creatine as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS), discussing its release, action, and reuptake mechanisms.

[28] Effects of Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation on Muscle, Bone and Brain- Hope or Hype for Older Adults?

This paper discusses the potential of creatine monohydrate supplementation to countermeasure the negative consequences of biological aging, such as reductions in muscle strength, lean/muscle mass, bone mass, and impaired brain health and function.

[29] The Paradoxical Effect of Creatine Monohydrate on Muscle Damage Markers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

This meta-analysis examines the effects of creatine monohydrate on exercise-induced muscle damage markers, inflammation, and oxidative stress. It suggests that creatine may enhance recovery and improve training adaptations.

[30] Creatine and creatine forms intended for sports nutrition.

This review provides an up-to-date overview of the relevant information with special focus on human studies regarding the safety of creatine monohydrate and other marketed creatine forms, in particular creatine pyruvate, creatine citrate, creatine malate, creatine taurinate, creatine phosphate, creatine orotate, creatine ethyl ester, creatine pyroglutamate, creatine gluconate, and magnesium creatine chelate.